Exploring the Vedic Basis of Bharata’s Natyashastra

According to Bharata, the Nāṭyaveda was divinely revealed by Brahmā himself, compiling the essence of all four Vedas and serving as the quintessence of all arts and sciences. In his proclamation, Bharata declares:

sarvaśāstrārthasampannaṁ sarvaśilpapravartakam |
nāṭyākhyaṁ pañcamaṁ vedaṁ setihāsaṁ karomyaham || 15 ||

evaṁ saṅkalpya bhagavān sarvavedān anusmaran |
nāṭyavedaṁ tataś cakre caturvedāṅgasambhavam || 16 ||

jagrāha pāṭhyam ṛgvedāt sāmabhyo gītam eva ca |
yajurvedād abhinayān rasān ātharvaṇād api || 17 ||

vedopavedaiḥ sambaddho nāṭyavedo mahātmanā |
evaṁ bhagavatā sṛṣṭo brahmaṇā sarvavedinā || 18 ||

“I shall now relate the Nāṭyaśāstra, the fifth Veda, which is replete with the knowledge of all śāstras and the initiator of all arts and crafts. Thus, following this resolve, the divine Brahmā, recalling all the Vedas, created the Nāṭyaveda, which encompasses the essence of the four Vedāṅgas.”

Brahmā comprehended the Ṛgveda as the text to be recited, the Sāmaveda as the songs to be sung, the Yajurveda as the gestures to be enacted, and the Atharvaveda as the sentiments to be expressed. Linked with the Vedas and their associated sciences, the Nāṭyaveda was composed by the great soul, Brahmā, who is the knower of all Vedas.

jagrāha pāṭhyam ṛgvedāt sāmabhyo gītam eva ca |
yajurvedād abhinayān rasān ātharvaṇād api || NS – 1.017

vedopavedaiḥ sambaddho nāṭyavedo mahātmanā |
evaṁ bhagavatā sṛṣṭo brahmaṇā sarvavedinā || NS – 1.018

As per Śārṅgadeva:

ṛg yajuḥ sāmavedebhyo vedāc cātharvaṇaḥ kramāt |
pāṭhyaṁ cābhinayām gītaṁ rasān saṅgṛhya padmabhuḥ ||

“Ṛg yajuḥ sāma vedebhyo vedāc cātharvaṇaḥ kramāt |
Pāṭhyaṁ cābhinayām gītaṁ rasān saṅgṛhya padmabhuḥ ||”

This verse illustrates how Brahmā compiled the elements of nāṭya (theatrical art) from the four Vedas:

• Ṛgveda contributed Pāṭhya (dialogues),
• Yajurveda offered Abhinaya (physical expression),
• Sāmaveda provided Gīta (music), and
• Atharvaveda enriched it with Rasa (emotional essence) and moral instruction.

Through this synthesis, the Nāṭyaśāstra establishes its deep connection to the Vedic tradition.

Dialogues in the Ṛgveda, such as those between Purūrava and Urvāśī (10.95) or Yama and Yamī (10.10), reveal a dramatic quality. Prof. B. K. Ghosh suggested that “these dialogue-hymns may be regarded as dramas in embryo.” The Purūrava-Urvāśī hymn served as the foundational inspiration for Kālidāsa’s play Vikramorvaśīyam.

According to Abhinavagupta, here, the term Pāṭhya (verbal content) refers to the aspect of speech that conveys a clearly articulated meaning. Articulateness is defined as the capacity to convey a meaningful intention when supported by specific modulations, tonal variations, and embellishments, as will be discussed later under the subject of prosody and tonal ornamentation. When such articulation is refined and structured, it is called Pāṭhya (recitation). Due to its primacy, it has been addressed first.

Thus, Bharata will assert:
“Effort must be made in speech, for it is regarded as the body of drama.
Gestures, costumes, and psychological states indeed serve to convey the meaning of speech.” (Chapter 14, verse 2)

Even though expressive gestures (abhinaya) are inherently included in the dramatic form, speech (Pāṭhya) has been addressed separately and taken first from the Ṛgveda. The Ṛgveda, known for its emphasis on tripartite tonal structure (traisvarya), supports rituals (yajñas) through hymns (stotra). Likewise, recitation in drama also incorporates this tripartite tonal structure. It is said to achieve musicality (gīta-rūpa) through the absence of monotony and inclusion of tonal variation. This will be elaborated upon in Nāṭyaśāstra, Chapter 17.

Since recitation inherently involves modulation of tones, following it, Bharata states: “He (Brahmā) took music (gīta) from the Sāmaveda.” The conjunctive mention of ca (and) indicates that all components of drama are of equal status. The restrictive eva (only) implies that music alone, derived from the Sāmaveda, is taken in this context, aligning with the principle that “the term sāma refers to the chants in yajñas” (Jaimini 2.1.36), Abhinavagupta says. The foundational use of background songs and melodic interludes in drama also stems from the Ṛgveda, as suggested by the specific mention in the section on dhruvā songs (Chapter 32).

The instruments—both solid (ghanavādya) and hollow (sushira)—are incorporated here due to their tonal prominence. The Sāmaveda, emphasizing balanced timing and rhythm (tāla), provides the foundation for musical accompaniment in dramatic performance.

Regarding the Yajurveda, which is ritualistically action-oriented, its inclusion pertains to gestures (aṅga) such as circumambulation (pradakṣiṇā), reflecting the sequential execution of rituals. Costumes (nepathya) like red turbans and accessories, specific to various rituals, emerge from this tradition. The mental resolve and effort required in these actions (sattva) are also derived from it. Hence, gestures are connected to the Yajurveda.

carmāva bhindanti pāpmānam eva eṣām ava bhindanti mā’pra ātsīr mā’ti vyātsīr ity āha sampraty eva eṣām pāpmānam ava bhindanti |
udakumbhān adhinidhāya dāsyo mārjālīyam pari nṛtyanti pado nighnantīr idam madhuṁ gāyantyaḥ |
madhu vai devānām paramam annādyam paramam evān nādyam avarundhate pado ni ghnanti mahīyām eva iṣu dadhati || TS – 7.5.10

This passage from the Taittirīya Saṁhitā of the Kṛṣṇa Yajurveda describes a Vedic ritual centered on cleansing and overcoming sin. Participants symbolically “break apart sin” using leather shields, signifying protection and purification. The instructions emphasize maintaining this spiritual guard and not letting it falter. In the second part, women actively participate by setting down water pots, forming a circle, and dancing rhythmically. Their dance and stamping feet carry both symbolic and ritual significance, as they sing a hymn that praises sweetness—the ultimate offering for the gods. Through this act, they metaphorically secure divinity and greatness within themselves, reinforcing a connection to the divine.

The term Rasa in the Atharvaveda appears in various forms, embodying a wide range of meanings, including liquid, nectar, juice, milk, wealth, water, and even earth. While the Atharvaveda does not explicitly define or classify Rasas as the Nāṭyaśāstra does, its hymns evoke emotional states closely aligned with the treatise’s descriptions, such as Śṛṅgāra (love), Bhayānaka (fear), Karuṇa (compassion), and Raudra (anger).

The Atharvaveda, known for its association with rites like śānti (peace-making) and māraṇa (destruction), provides a foundation for understanding and evoking deep emotional states. These rituals, aimed at ensuring community welfare or subduing enemies, mirror the emotional dynamics that drama seeks to create.

In these rituals, the ṛtvik (ritual performer) is similar to an actor (naṭa), using gestures, expressions, and purposeful actions to generate emotional responses. The emotions expressed—such as prasāda (serenity) and viṣāda (sorrow), or śama (calmness) and vepathu (trembling)—are comparable to the vibhāvas (causes of emotions) and anubhāvas (expressions of emotions) in drama. Together with vyabhicāribhāvas (transient emotions) like dhṛti (resolve) and pramoda (delight), these elements come together to produce rasa.

Abhinavagupta highlights that the Atharvaveda’s focus on emotional intensity and empathetic expressions makes it vital for creating the emotional and aesthetic pleasure at the heart of dramatic art. By drawing on these elements, nāṭya (drama) becomes capable of connecting deeply with the audience, turning abstract emotions into vivid, shared experiences.

In this way, rasa is not just an intellectual concept but a lived and relished experience for the audience. By incorporating the insights of the Atharvaveda, drama achieves its goal of creating emotional and aesthetic enjoyment, rooted in a Vedic tradition that Bharata and Abhinavagupta elaborate on. This connection reinforces the idea that nāṭya is a profound and meaningful art form designed to evoke and celebrate human emotions.

The theoretical foundation for referring to the Nāṭyaśāstra as the Nāṭyaveda is rooted in two key aspects: first, its components are directly derived from the Vedas, and second, its intrinsic purpose aligns with the attainment of the fourfold puruṣārthas—dharma (righteousness), artha (prosperity), kāma (desire), and mokṣa (liberation). Kollinātha accepts that since it originates from the essence of the primary Vedas and was revealed by the four-faced Brahmā, it holds the status of a Veda:

ऋगादिमुख्यवेदमूलत्वेन च चतुर्मुखेन दत्तस्य वेदत्वे सिद्धे तदर्थभूत नाट्यप्रतिपादक भरतमुनिप्रणीतस्य चतुर्विधपुरुषार्थफलस्य शास्त्रस्य वेदमूलत्वेन वैदिकत्वं वेदितव्यम्।

ṛgādi-mukhya-veda-mūlatvena ca caturmukhena dattasya vedatve siddhe tad-artha-bhūta nāṭya-pratipādaka bharata-muni-praṇītasya caturvidha-puruṣārtha-phalasyā śāstrasya veda-mūlatvena vaidikatvaṁ veditavyam.

Abhinavagupta, the renowned Kashmiri philosopher, has titled his commentary on Bharata’s Nāṭyaśāstra as Nāṭyaveda-Vivṛti. The title itself reveals that an alternate name for Bharata’s treatise is Nāṭyaveda. This nomenclature underscores the text’s close connection to the Vedic tradition, positioning it as a sacred scripture rather than a mere manual on dramaturgy. References to this name can also be found in other texts, such as the Saṅgīta Ratnākara (2nd Book, p. 624). In the Nartanādhyāya, Śrāṅgadhara reiterates this association by stating:

नाट्यवेदं ददौ पूर्वं भरताय चतुर्मुखः।

Nāṭyavedaṁ dadau pūrvaṁ Bharatāya caturmukhaḥ.

(Brahmā, the four-faced one, first imparted the Nāṭyaveda to Bharata.)

While the Nāṭyaśāstra is referred to as Nāṭyaveda, it is also classified as an Upaveda. Kollinātha, in his commentary on the Saṅgīta Ratnākara (Vol. 2, p. 624), elaborates on this divine connection, affirming the Vedic foundation of the Nāṭyaveda. He asserts that since it derives its essence from the four Vedas, it can rightfully be called a Veda. However, its emphasis on music leads it to be identified with Gāndharvaveda (a secondary Veda), while its focus on enactment aligns it with the Nāṭyaveda:

नाट्यवेद एव गीत प्रधान्य विवक्षया गान्धर्ववेद उच्यते। अभिनय प्रधान्य विवक्षया तु नाट्यवेद इत्युच्यते।

Nāṭyaveda eva gīta prādhānya vivakṣayā gāndharvaveda ucyate |
Abhinaya prādhānya vivakṣayā tu nāṭyaveda ity ucyate.

“When the focus is on music, it is called Gāndharvaveda; when the focus shifts to enactment, it is referred to as Nāṭyaveda.”

This highlights how the various dimensions of the Nāṭyaśāstra influence its nomenclature.

In the Vedas, the sacred texts of ancient India, we encounter a structured division into four parts—Saṁhitās, Brāhmaṇas, Āraṇyakas, and Upaniṣads—each offering unique perspectives on the human quest for truth and enlightenment. The Saṁhitās are repositories of divine hymns and mantras, the Brāhmaṇas elucidate the rituals and sacrificial practices, the Āraṇyakas delve into the philosophical underpinnings of the rituals, and the Upaniṣads lead seekers towards the ultimate realization of the self.

While the Nāṭyaśāstra does not adhere to a similar explicit segmentation, a careful examination reveals echoes of these four parts within its textual fabric. Bharata Muni initiates the discourse with an Upaniṣad-like exposition, delving into the profound mysteries of theatrical artistry and its metaphysical significance. As the text unfolds, we traverse through the annals of history, delve into philosophical discourse, explore the intricacies of theatrical practice, and ultimately, contemplate the lofty ideals and spiritual dimensions of Nāṭya.

Further Reading